Water is essential to life and is needed to support the function of every cell in the body. Without water all physiological processes go into decline, including nutrient absorption, the maintenance of electrolyte levels, pH balance, and the elimination of waste. It is therefore important to drink good clean water throughout the day while reducing the intake of tea, coffee and sugary drinks. Excess water consumption can also be a stress on the body, the actual quantity necessary being relative to visible urine concentration.

Unfortunately, town water is contaminated with chlorine and fluoride which our liver and kidneys have to work hard to detoxify and remove. Antimicrobial agents or other sterilisation techniques are of course necessary for a reliable urban water supply, but fluoridation is still apparently controversial.

Fluoride in the form of sodium fluoride or flurosilicic acid has been added to the water supply in Australia at a rate of about 1ppm since the 1950s when it was thought to help prevent tooth decay. Unfortunately, the benefit of fluoridated water has never been adequately proven in order to justify the continuing schemes of countries such as Australia and America, and was rejected by Sweden, The Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, and more recently Israel. Anyway, drinking a cup of tea regularly will provide the quantity of fluoride thought necessary for an enduring protective effect. One fifth of common pharmaceuticals also contain fluoride compounds.¹

In addition, fluoride is present in the milk of cow’s that drink town water, as well as in infant formulas prepared with fluoridated water. The regular consumption of formulas can actually result in infants exceeding the RDA for fluoride, a major concern because any possible benefits arising from fluoride are overshadowed by its association with reduced intelligence in children. For the rest of the urban population there are enzyme and electrolyte derangements, as well as an increased risk of some types of cancer.² It is also associated with chronic hypothyroidism (fluoride blocks iodine).³

Fluoride is not an essential mineral and no known deficiency state exists for the teeth or otherwise. The supposed beneficial effect is actually indirect, arising from the inhibition of enzyme activity in the bacteria which cause gingivitis, dental plaque and tooth decay. On the other hand, excess fluoride has a broad influence on the body because it inhibits the essential membrane pumps (Na⁺/K⁺ pump) found on cells in all tissues, with important implications for ‘neurodevelopmental, neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders, as well as increased risk of cancer, metabolic, pulmonary and cardiovascular disease.’¹ Fluoride consumption also induces inflammation and oxidative stress, an important chronic state conducive to all metabolic diseases including Alzheimer’s.⁴ 

Fluoride is also often combined with silver nano-particles (AgNPs) for an antimicrobial effect. One study found that this combination with fluoride was worse than fluoride alone: ‘AgNPs penetrated the cell membrane and localized inside the mitochondria. Co-incubation experiments resulted in increased oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis.’⁵

Chlorine is also a contaminant of interest because it is pervasive: we drink it daily, absorb it through our skin when we wash, as well as inhale it in the steam while showering. In large population-based studies we see this constant exposure to chlorine reflected in the increased risk of low birth-weight babies, still birth, as well as several kinds of birth defects involving the heart, nervous system and respiratory system. There is also an increase in neural tube defects and cleft palate.⁶

The literature for chlorine also specifically mentions bladder cancer,⁷ as well as the more broad effects of ‘chlorinative stress’ due to oxidation. In regard to the second case, the authors of one review suggested that a healthy lifestyle and antioxidant supplements were crucial to offset the constant oxidative stress and potential for accelerate aging. The long-term impact of exposure could result in ‘neurodegenerative and cardiovascular pathologies, atherosclerosis and cancer; chlorination was mainly linked to diseases where molecular (protein) alteration constitute the major suspected cause: i.e. inflammation, tissue lesions, DNA damages, apoptosis and oxidative stress itself.’⁸

Water can also be contaminated when it is stored in plastic vessels, so drinking from plastic water bottles or heating plastic containers in the microwave oven should be avoided. This precaution is necessary because of the hormone-disrupting chemicals and toxins which leach from the plastic into the water or food. The most common class of chemicals found in consumer products are phthalates which are used to make the plastic container flexible, flame retardants (Polybrominated diphenyl ethers), and Bisphenol-A (BPA).⁹

BPA is used to make polycarbonate water bottles, line water pipes and tins, and is a known endocrine system disruptor (EDC) like flame retardants and phthalates. The potential effects of BPA are broad, affecting the nervous system, thyroid, energy metabolism, fertility etc. Obesity, diabetes and asthma are often mentioned in the medical literature, as well as adverse effects on the immune system and an association with cancer due to mutagenic effects.¹⁰

The heating of water or food is another matter, and should be done in stainless steel, ceramic or glass containers rather than aluminium, because aluminium can be a source of chronic health problems. Most readers would associate aluminium with the controversy surrounding Alzheimer’s disease; however, aluminium poisoning is more commonly observed in clinic when identified by its broader characteristic symptoms of mental dullness, debility, fatigue, numbness, dryness and obstinate constipation. The efficacy of a homeopathic aluminium antidote proves the link conclusively.

The problem of the accumulation of plastic micro-particles in the soil, rivers and oceans is also a growing problem recognised by the international science community. Plastics derived from waste drinking bottles, packaging, tyre dust, ropes, nets, textiles, straws and small items such as ear buds, or even exfoliants beads in cosmetics, are dispersed and broken down by currents and waves, ingested and further reduced in size by sea creatures such as plankton before re-entering the food chain. These micro-particles (< 1 μm in size) can then be found in many tissues and organs of shellfish or fish before being eaten by larger predators and eventually humans.

These plastic particles are currently found in bottled water and sea salt, and are now so prevalent that the toxic effect of these plastics, as well as the industrial chemicals associated with their manufacture—‘plasticizers, flame retardants, pigments, antimicrobial agents, heat stabilizers, UV stabilizers, fillers’—are being taken into consideration in research.

Microplastics also assist in the accumulation of  un-related environmental toxins which have a greater affinity for the plastic than the surrounding water, enabling the plastic to act as a carrier of several toxins. These may be, for example, ‘persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and organochlorine pesticides like dichlorodiphynyltrichloroethane (DDT) or hexachlorobenzene’. The potential toxic effect of the accumulation of polymers used to make plastics are tissue inflammation, cellular proliferation and the necrosis of immune cells. The additional effect of any accompanying toxins are widespread.¹¹

Many people attempt to avoid the problem of water contamination by buying bottled water without realising that it is often just tap water in an expensive package. Alternatively, the problem can be dealt with by investing in a dual filter system consisting of an active charcoal element and a fine membrane filter, or even better, a reverse-osmosis system that removes even smaller contaminants such as pharmaceutical drug residues, agri-chemical residues, micro-organisms and heavy metals. Clean drinking water can then be placed in refillable stainless steel or glass bottles.

Heavy metals such as copper and lead can also appear in drinking water and may arise from the water supply or corroded plumbing. Lead was in fact recently identified in the water supply of the new Perth Children’s Hospital, delaying its opening by several years, as well as public water fountains in Geelong. Mercury and other heavy metals can also be present in farmed fish that consume agricultural residues in feed.

Chronic exposure to heavy metals can be assessed with a hair mineral analysis (HMA) and kinesiology before identifying the source and undertaking a detox program. Furthermore, by undertaking an environmental audit following the result of the HMA, the reader may be surprised to discover the quality of their tap water is not actually in question but smoking, mercury amalgams, factory foods, feedlot meats, recent household renovations, the  workplace or the inhalation of city smog are the actual cause.

References:

1.         Waugh DT. Fluoride Exposure Induces Inhibition of Sodium-and Potassium-Activated Adenosine Triphosphatase (Na+, K+-ATPase) Enzyme Activity: Molecular Mechanisms and Implications for Public Health. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2019;16.

2.         Peckham S, Awofeso N. Water fluoridation: a critical review of the physiological effects of ingested fluoride as a public health intervention. ScientificWorldJournal 2014;2014:293019.

3.         Malin AJ, Riddell J, McCague H, Till C. Fluoride exposure and thyroid function among adults living in Canada: Effect modification by iodine status. Environ Int 2018;121:667–74.

4.         Goschorska M, Baranowska-Bosiacka I, Gutowska I, Metryka E, Skórka-Majewicz M, Chlubek D. Potential Role of Fluoride in the Etiopathogenesis of Alzheimer’s Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2018;19.

5.         Inkielewicz-Stepniak I, Santos-Martinez MJ, Medina C, Radomski MW. Pharmacological and toxicological effects of co-exposure of human gingival fibroblasts to silver nanoparticles and sodium fluoride. Int J Nanomedicine 2014;9:1677–87.

6.         Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Toledano MB, Eaton NE, Fawell J, Elliott P. Chlorination disinfection byproducts in water and their association with adverse reproductive outcomes: a review. Occup Environ Med 2000;57:73–85.

7.         Beane Freeman LE, Cantor KP, Baris D, et al. Bladder Cancer and Water Disinfection By-product Exposures through Multiple Routes: A Population-Based Case-Control Study (New England, USA). Environ Health Perspect 2017;125:067010.

8.         Casciaro M, Di Salvo E, Pace E, Ventura-Spagnolo E, Navarra M, Gangemi S. Chlorinative stress in age-related diseases: a literature review. Immun Ageing A 2017;14:21.

9.         Li D, Suh S. Health risks of chemicals in consumer products: A review. Environ Int 2019;123:580–7.

10.       Xu J, Huang G, Guo TL. Developmental Bisphenol A Exposure Modulates Immune-Related Diseases. Toxics 2016;4.

11.       Smith M, Love DC, Rochman CM, Neff RA. Microplastics in Seafood and the Implications for Human Health. Curr Environ Health Rep 2018;5:375–86.